Motivation Essays (1169 words) - Ethology, Evolutionary Biology

Motivation Motivation explains why people behave as they do. Some scientists view motivation as the factor that determines behaviour, as expressed in the phrase All behaviour is motivated.(World Book, 1986, p.721). Other scientists focus on two certain aspects of motivated behaviour, excitement or exhilaration of behaviour, that is motivation arouses an organism and causes it to act, and the direction of behaviour, which is lead by habits, skills, abilities and structural features. (World Book, 1986). This essay aims to describe the four theories of motivation, Instinct theory, Sociobiology, Drive-Reduction theory and Incentive theory. I will be relating each theory to George`s behaviour and whether they do or do not apply to George`s behaviour. Instinct is behaviour that is inherited rather than learned. Instinct is an inborn tendency/biological force that dominates behaviour. (Weiten, 1995). William McDougall (1908) viewed instincts as unlearned, universal in expression and universal in a species. (Weiten, 1995). John Bowlby (1969) views instinct with regards to baby`s attachment to their parents or caregivers, as in-built. His reason for this development is that babies stay close to their parents because they are provided with protection. Human instincts are more flexible and more open to learning experiences than those of other species. Just like the imprinting of baby geese, so too do human babies attach to his/her parents after many hours of interaction. [Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and Weaver, C. (1999)]. An example of instinctual behaviour is that all ants build anthills in the same way, even when they are not raised together, then the anthill building behaviour is instinctual and not a learned response.(Weiten, 1995). Sex in humans is also instinctual. We are not born with the desire to engage in sexual activities but as we reach puberty, there is a need for sexual stimulation. Even though we might not know what to do, it is instinctual. But, instincts only describe behaviour, they do not explain why a person engages in behaviour. Therefore with regards to the case study, George`s behaviour, (running the marathon), is not instinctual. Not everyone is born to run a marathon, it is a learned response. (Weiten, 1995). Sociobiology is the study of the biological basis for the social behaviour of humans and other animals. (Worldbook, 1986). Sociobiologists try to ascertain the function of various types of behaviour in the life of an animal. Sociobiology is based on the theory that the central process of life is the struggle of genes to reproduce themselves. Theorists believe that natural preference favours behaviour that maximises reproductive attainment - transmitting genes to the next generation. According to this theory, an organism inherits inclinations to develop certain types of behaviour, and these behaviour patterns increase an organism`s chances of transferring its genes to the next generation. It is believed that an organism can transmit its genes on, not only by reproducing but also by helping related organisms survive and reproduce.(Weiten, 1995).An example of this would be a bee stinging an intruder bee, in order to protect the life and genes of the queen bee (an organism sacrificing their life, for others, therefore passing on its genes). A human`s will, for sacrificing their life for a relative or someone they know, is much stronger than that of sacrificing their life for someone they do not know. A lady will not usually sacrifice her life by running across the road to save a child, (that she does not know), in traffic, whereas if it were her own child, she would sacrifice her life in order to save her child`s life and to carry on the genes. (Weiten, 1995). There are ongoing debates about sociobiology and its relevance to human motivation. Some theorists believe that sociobiologists overestimate the influence of biology and underestimate the influence of culture. (Deverell, A., 1999). In the African culture, African men consider African women with large buttocks appealing, but may be viewed as unattractive in other cultures. [Wortman, C. , Loftus, E. and Weaver, C. (1999)]. George is exhibiting perseverance in the face of everything bad. George`s perseverance is a trait that is beneficial to his survival. George did not run to protect his genes, it was his own motivation that made him run the marathon. Most people would not persevere as George did. Drive Theory: Clark Hull (1884-1952) defines a drive as an observation that organism`s seek to maintain homeostasis, a state of physiological equilibrium/stability. (Hull in Weiten, 1995, p.378). A drive assists an organism in alleviating inner tension. For example drinking to alleviate thirst. Drive theory explains why people eat, sleep, seek pleasure, avoid pain and engage in

Jethro Tull and the Invention of the Seed Drill

Jethro Tull and the Invention of the Seed Drill A farmer, writer, and inventor, Jethro Tull was an instrumental figure in English agriculture, pushing to improve age-old agrarian practices by applying science and technology.   Early Life Born in 1674 to well-to-do parents, Tull grew up on the family’s Oxfordshire estate. After withdrawing from St. John’s College in Oxford, he moved to London, where he studied the pipe organ before becoming a law student. In 1699, Tull qualified as a barrister, toured Europe, and got married.  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹ Relocating with his bride to the family farm, Tull eschewed law to work the land. Inspired by agrarian practices he saw in Europe - including pulverized soil around evenly spaced plants - Tull was determined to experiment at home.   The Seed Drill Jethro Tull invented the seed drill in 1701 as a way to plant more efficiently. Prior to his invention, sowing seeds was done by hand, by scattering them on the ground or placing them in the ground individually, such as with bean and pea seeds. Tull considered scattering wasteful because many seeds did not take root. His finished seed drill included a hopper to store the seed, a cylinder to move it, and a funnel to direct it. A plow at the front created the row, and a harrow at the back covered the seed with soil. It was the first agricultural machine with moving parts. It started as a one-man, one-row device, but later designs sowed seeds in three uniform rows, had wheels and were drawn by horses. Using wider spacing than previous practices allowed horses to draw the equipment and not step on the plants. Other Inventions Tull went on to make more â€Å"groundbreaking† inventions, literally. His horse-drawn hoe or hoe-plow dug up the soil, loosening it for planting while also pulling up unwanted weed roots. He mistakenly thought that the soil itself was the food for plants and that breaking it up allowed the plants to take it in better. The real reason that you loosen soil for planting is that the act allows more moisture and air to reach plant roots. Coinciding with his theory on the way plants fed, he also believed that you should till the soil while the plant is growing, not just during planting. His idea that plants grow better with tilled soil around them, though, is correct if not his theory on why. Tilling around plants reduces weeds competing with the crops, allowing the desired plants to grow better. Tull also improved designs of the plow.   These inventions were put to the test, and Tull’s farm thrived. Even spacing; less seed waste; better aeration per plant; and less weed growth all increased his yields. In 1731, the inventor and farmer published The New Horse Houghing Husbandry: Or, an Essay on the Principles of Tillage and Vegetation. His book was met with opposition in some quarters - especially his mistaken idea that manure didnt help plants - but eventually, his mechanical ideas and practices couldnt be denied to be useful and work well. Farming, thanks to Tull, had become a bit more rooted in science.

U.S Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Essay

U.S Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) - Essay Example By the early 1970s, the problems being created by drug use were severe enough to need more attention, time, and labor to try to sort them out. Therefore, President Richard Nixon created the Drug Enforcement Administration in July 1973 by Executive Order so that a solitary united command to fight the drugs war could be established (DEA, 2008). At its origin, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) had in total two thousand, seven hundred and seventy five employees, this includes a support staff of one thousand, three hundred and five, and the budget was a mere sixty five million dollars in 1972. By 1975, there were four thousand and seventy five employees, with two thousand, two hundred and thirty one special agents. They had an annual budget of one hundred and sixteen million dollars. By the turn of the century in 2000, the administration had nine thousand, one hundred and forty one employees, four thousand, five hundred and sixty six were special agents, and they had a budget of 1,586.6 million dollars. However, by 2007, the Drug Enforcement Agency had an amazing ten thousand, seven hundred and fifty nine employees, five thousand, two hundred and thirty five special agents, with an annual budget of 2.3 million dollars, and have eighty-seven offices in sixty-three countries (DEA, 2008). By 2008 the DEA had eleven thousand employees all together (The Associated Press, 2008). In 2002, more that twenty-six thousand United States citizens died from drug related causes. To put this in perspective, that is seven times larger number of people than those who died in the 9/11 attacks. The money spent on direct drug related costs is enormous, and includes costs for health care and drug treatment programs, costs of services and goods lost to drug related crimes, law enforcement, costs for jails and prisons, and the judicial system costs. Additionally, there are the indirect costs of drug related use and crime are loss of productivity due to ill health or